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Originating from Greek and Latin texts, commas have evolved to become indispensable tools of clarity and precision. In modern writing, commas serve as signposts, creating rhythm and flow, highlighting pauses, separating ideas, and ensuring coherence.
*The relative pronoun that is used with restrictive/essential clauses: information without which the reader might misunderstand the meaning of the sentence. The relative pronoun which is used with nonrestrictive/nonessential clauses: information not essential to the meaning of the sentence. The relative pronoun who may or may not have commas depending on the context, so the writer uses punctuation to indicate restriction.
The following video further clarifies the difference:
In summary, never use commas around a that clause. Always use commas around a which clause. Depending on its meaning, a who clause can go either way.
Commas prevent the intro act from stealing the show from the main act. Table 8.2 below highlights introductory words, phrases, and dependent clauses. Note that if the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, you should not use a comma.
Table 8.2 Use commas to set off introductory words, phrases, and clauses (click here)
Separate independent clauses that are joined by coordinating conjunctions—FANBOYS. The FANBOYS are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
Table 8.3.1 Use commas to separate independent clauses joined by FANBOYS conjunctions (click here)
If a sentence starts with a short independent clause—fewer than five words—the comma is optional: I will stay but she will go.
Table 8.3.2 Do not use commas between compounds (click here)
Use commas to separate all the items, including the last one.
In her speech, the sales VP thanked her team members, Shanna Parry and Miranda Parkinson.In her speech, the sales VP thanked her team members, Shanna Parry, and Miranda Parkinson.The first example does not clarify whether Shanna and Miranda are on the team. Using the Oxford comma to clarify meaning.
Many style guides (including Associated Press (AP), the most common journalistic style guide) do not require the Oxford comma. Chances are your school newspaper intentionally omits the Oxford comma. This textbook, however, follows Patricia O’Connor’s advice: “[The Oxford comma] doesn’t hurt and it creates clarity, so leave it in.”
Table 8.4 Use the Oxford comma before the last item in a series (click here)
Place a comma between coordinate adjectives—two adjacent adjectives that equally modify a noun:
Table 8.5 Use commas to separate adjacent coordinate adjectives (click here)
To test whether you need a comma, insert the word and between the adjectives. If it makes sense, insert a comma between them.
The previous rules showed you where to correctly place commas. This rule shows you places where you should never (well almost never) place commas.
With few exceptions, avoid commas in the following situations:
For more information on comma-related errors, visit Purdue’s OWL.
Semicolons have three specific uses: punctuating independent clauses not joined by FANBOYS conjunctions, separating series that contain internal commas, and punctuating independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs—words like therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover, and notwithstanding.
Table 9.1 Correctly use semicolons (click here)
Table 9.2 Do not use semicolons when words interrupt flow (click here)
*To be clear and concise, if you use i.e., which means in other words, consider eliminating everything to the left of the i.e. If you have to say in other words, you did not clearly, concisely express yourself in the first place.
Need a little more practice? Check out Grammar Girl's tips on semicolons.
A colon introduces a list or series, example, quotation, or subtitle. It also separates time expressed in narrative writing.
Table 10 Correctly use colons (click here)
**In these two cases, the colon does not need to be preceded by an independent clause (a complete sentence).
For more information, read Grammar Girl’s advice on colons.
Dashes (—) are not hyphens (-).
Table 11.1 The hyphen (-) has three mechanical functions (click here)
For more help with hyphens, check out this site: How to Use a Hyphen.
Table 12.1.1 Apostrophes indicate contractions – missing letters (click here)
Table 12.1.2 Apostrophes indicate possession (click here)
***What do you do with names that end in -s, -es, -z, or -x? To keep things simple, this book adheres to the Chicago Manual of Style’s differentiation between references to one person versus a group.
For more on how to make names plural and possessive, read the Grammar Girl’s posts How to Make Family Names Plural and Apostrophe Catastrophes.
Table 12.2 Correctly use quotation marks (click here)
Table 12.3 Correctly place punctuation marks relative to quotation marks (click here)
For the most part, capitalization rules apply across languages: capitalize the first word of every sentence and capitalize proper nouns. The difficulty arises when determining whether a noun is proper or common.
Explore the difference in Table 13.1 below.
Table 13.1 Capitalize specific proper nouns (click here)
Make lists parallel, as emphasized in "Syntax and Word Choice." Note how each of these bullet items begins not only with an upper-case letter but also with a verb:
Table 13.3 Correctly capitalize book titles, job titles, and degrees (click here)
For titles of books, movies, and other creative works, capitalize the following, regardless of word length:
For all other words—mainly articles and prepositions—capitalize only those more than four letters long.
The Call of the Wild
How I Met Your Mother
Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis
The president of this company is Jackie Jones.
Carol introduced the new head of our company, President Jackie Jones.
owner Sally Ford
coach Rafiki Danube
director Steven Spielberg
Cary Lewis is earning a Master of Public Administration (MPA).
Camila Antivilo is working on a degree in business administration.
Table 13.4 Capitalizing quotations and internal questions (click here)
Table 13.5 Capitalize specific compass points or regions (click here)
The following basic rules are consistent with the Chicago Manual of Style, but you should consult your company’s style guide to learn the differences.
Use numerals for double-digit numbers 10 and higher, percentages, measurements, statistics, and page and chapter numbers. In sentences that contain numbers over and under 10, maintain consistency by using numerals.
Table 14.1 Correctly express numbers (click here)
Thirteen clients expect visits this week.
This week, 13 clients expect visits.
Table 14.2 Express numbers larger than one million with a combination of decimals & verbal descriptions (click here)
Generally, use the cardinal—1, 2, 3—number to express dates in writing. Ordinal numbers—1st, 2nd, 3rd—are allowable only if the date precedes the month. Although cardinal and ordinal forms are interchangeable in conversation, follow this rule in writing.
Table 14.3 Correctly express dates (click here)
Use the currency sign with no decimals for whole numbers—$20. For fractions of dollars or other currency, use the decimal expression—$20.56. Use the correct symbol for the currency you are expressing (not all monetary units are dollars).
Use whole numbers to express time—5 PM—but use the colon to express fractions of hours—5:30 PM. To maintain parallelism in sentences that contain multiple time expressions, use the colon even if only one item contains a fraction of an hour. Both uppercase and lowercase notations—AM or a.m. and PM or p.m.—are acceptable expressions for morning and afternoon/evening. However, avoid using o’clock in business writing.
Express standalone fractions—numbers greater than zero but less than one—as hyphenated words. In business writing, replace fractions with percentages or decimals whenever possible.
Table 14.5 shows examples of how to express fractions and decimals, but you should follow your company's style guide.
Table 14.5 Express fractions as hyphenated words, percentages, or decimals (click here)
For more information on numbers, read the Business Writing blog post, Rules for Numbers.
Punctuation and mechanics can be puzzling for business writers. Use AI checkers but remember they will not catch all your mistakes and they will falsely indicate mistakes. The best rule of thumb is to familiarize yourself with the rules and keep trusted resources bookmarked in your favorite browser.
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