A May 2023 New York Times article recounts how former passenger Robert Mata sued Avianca Airlines, claiming a serving cart struck and injured his knee on a 2019 flight from El Salvador to New York. The airlines claimed that the statute of limitations for a claim had expired.

The plaintiff’s lawyers filed a 10-page brief citing many court decisions that would favor the plaintiff’s suit. Included in the cited court decisions is a decision called Varghese v. China Southern Airlines, a case whose content showed that statutes of limitations create unduly negative consequences.

Here’s the problem: neither the court nor the airlines’ attorneys could confirm the brief’s veracity. They found neither the decisions nor the cited quotations summarized in the brief filed on behalf of Mr. Mata. Turns out ChatGPT created them. Mr. Mata’s attorney used ChatGPT. Without verifying its truth, the attorney cut and pasted the favorable information into the brief and submitted it.

His excuse? He had never used ChatGPT. This cautionary tale should convince you to do your research: investigate and trace your sources so you are confident they are credible—and real.

This chapter provides information on where you should search, how you should search, how you should evaluate the sources you find, how to cite sources, and how to avoid plagiarizing the sources you use.

where should i search?

Find and use credible information—ethos tied to logos—to bolster your credibility and improve your communication skills. Evidence can come from primary or secondary research. The strongest arguments are based on both.

Primary Research. When you conduct a survey, compile sales reports, participate in an informational interview, or perform an experiment, you’re creating new information through primary research.

To learn more about the theory and practice of primary research, take college classes on statistics, methodology and research, and social science research. Check with your academic advisor to learn more about classes that will teach you to do primary research, especially if you plan to go on to graduate school. Even if you don’t, taking a class that helps you understand data collection and analysis will add to your critical thinking and valuable workplace skills.

Secondary Research. When you consult an analyst’s report, search scholarly or news articles, or pull data from a government website, you’re doing secondary research—accessing information that already exists.

You can reasonably expect to start your secondary research on the internet, which is like an iceberg. Only about 4% of the web is on the surface—meaning it is publicly searchable: Wikipedia, TikTok, or Google. The latest artificial intelligence large language models live in the surface web, too.

In contrast to the surface web, which is accessible to anyone with internet access, the deep web— The remainder of the information—about 96%—is in the deep web, also known as the hidden or invisible web. This part of the internet is not indexed by standard web search engine programs. Deep websites are directly accessible via a specific URL or IP address but require additional security measures such as passwords or other authentication methods. Examples include webmail, online banking, cloud file access, and library databases where you can find peer-reviewed academic journal articles, trade journals, and other academic information.

A subset of the deep web, the dark web is intentionally hidden and inaccessible by standard browsers.

Following is a discussion of places to find credible information.

Government and nonprofit sites

Although they can be difficult to navigate, government websites contain a wealth of free information. Sources like data.gov, Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED), Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Census Bureau, EDGAR (SEC Filings), USPTO, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are only a sampling of the US government sites that collect and offer data for free.

Think tanks and research groups like Pew Research Center and Brookings Institution and nonprofits like the World Bank are also great places to find credible information.

Blogs, Podcasts, and subscriptions

Online blogs and podcasts that take you between the surface and deep web—depending on whether they require a pay subscription—are great places to find trending information. Podcasters know you don’t have a lot of extra time to read, so they create interesting, easily accessible podcasts like these:Harvard Business Review; Forbes; Entrepreneur Media, Inc; Fast Company; Business Insider; The Economist; Bloomberg Businessweek; McKinsey & Company Insights; Deloitte Insights; PwC; KPMG Insights; TED Business Tool; Financial Times; The New York Times; and The Wall Street Journal all operate active blogs and podcasts that contain helpful, industry-specific information. Subscribe and listen on your way to school or work.

As you dig a little deeper into the deep web, you will find subscription services and subscription databases that are usually available via local and university libraries. If your university library subscribes to them, you can access accounts like Mintel Trends, IBIS World, Euromonitor Report, Passport, and eMarketer.

Scholarly Research

Next look for scholarly research—shorthand for produced by well-trained, careful researchers and reviewed by field experts before being published. Peer-reviewed articles published in top academic journals survive a rigorous peer review process, which certifies that the results are reliable and authoritative.

To find this kind of scholarly research, search your school’s academic databases like ProQuest, EBSCO, and JSTOR, which each curate a variety of subject-specific databases that index and provide access to relevant publications. Business communication students are well-served by using ProQuest Business Collection and Business Source Premier (EBSCO).

Ask your librarian for the names of top journals in your chosen industry or field of study. Not all academic journals are of equal quality, so check with your librarians, who know the best ones in your industry. Get to know your school librarians sooner than later: their passion is helping students find credible information.

Your librarians can also show you how to access reliable data and statistics in your industry from sources like Statista, OECD Statistics, World Bank Open Data, and Eurostat.

How should I search?

Start with a question, perhaps like this one:

"Does social media cause eating disorders?"

What organizations might gather information on this topic?

Look on social media platforms, online communities, industry reports, blogs and podcasts, government websites, and scholarly reports.

Start with influencers on social media platforms. Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube will show you influencers who promote different types of healthy foods. Look for accounts and hashtags that promote healthy eating, recipes, meal prep, dieting, and wellness tips.

Next look at online communities. For this sample topic, explore forums dedicated to health and wellness, nutrition, and healthy eating habits. Platforms like Reddit, MyFitnessPal, Noom, Clean Simple Eats, or other local groups may provide insights.

Next, go to the industry sources to learn about trends and to find articles that relate to this topic.

Then search for scholarly articles or other data related to the topic.

A little reading will reveal that social media is associated with eating disorders, but a causal link has not yet been established.

AI versus conventional search engines

Natural language processing is making searching easier than ever. Using machine learning algorithms to analyze vast amounts of data—including user queries and interactions—to improve their understanding of natural language over time, search engines are being trained to understand the natural way you speak, so instead of having to use choppy search phrases, natural language processing gives you the flexibility of typing straightforward full-sentence queries into a search bar and getting good results. This technology is still evolving in terms of context and nuance; complex or ambiguous queries may still require more specific or refined search terms.

However, the library databases have not yet caught up to that technology. The library databases mentioned in this chapter still rely on Boolean operators like AND, OR, and NOT.

Because library databases do not return natural language search results, you must link your search terms. Using AND tells the search engine you want to see only results that include both concepts. Using OR tells the engine you’ll accept results that have any one of your terms. Using NOT excludes any results with that term.

Compare and contrast the query results for this topic: financial implications of mergers and acquisitions in the technology sector. First, use a Boolean search query that combines mergers AND acquisitions AND technology. Then formulate the same query in search engines like CoPilot or Google Gemini that recognize natural language queries. What are the differences you notice?

When you use AI to search, be skeptical of its results. As Wharton professor and AI expert Ethan Mollick suggests, assume that AI is incorrect. You must use critical thinking skills and information literacy strategies to find credible information.

How do I evaluate sources?

Whenever you encounter a new information source, whether it’s a scholarly journal, a website, or your roommate’s cousin’s girlfriend’s Twitter feed, consider whether citing that source as evidence will strengthen or undermine your position.

Always ask yourself, "Who is behind the information?"

SIFT METHOD

Your sources must pass the SIFT Method. Also called the Four Moves, the SIFT method provides a list of steps to take or moves to make when you are evaluating a source.

S–STOP

I–INVESTIGATE

F–FIND BETTER COVERAGE

T–TRACE CLAIMS

Mike Caulfield, the creator of the SIFT methodology and research scientist at the University of Washington’s Center for an Informed Public, has taught thousands of teachers and students how to verify claims and sources through his workshops.

As you learn more about SIFT below, you have the opportunity to learn directly from Caulfield. Each SIFT step contains a video in which Caulfield provides a personalized and comprehensive breakdown of his methodology.

Stop

Before you share—via social media, on a class assignment, or in a business presentation—any source of information, STOP. Ask the following questions:

Are you familiar with the website or information source?

What do you know about the source’s reputation?

If the answer is no, follow the next steps:

Investigate

Investigate the source. Who is behind the information? Evaluate the author’s expertise and possible agenda or bias.

How? Start with Wikipedia. "WIKIPEDIA?" you ask. Yes. Start with Wikipedia. You may have heard from your professors, teachers, friends, and parents that you should never trust Wikipedia.

Founded in 2001, Wikipedia started as an online encyclopedia, meant to be freely accessible to anyone around the world and to allow users to add, modify, and correct existing information.

Not anyone can edit Wikipedia. Only registered users can create new articles.

Also, Wikipedia has rules to help ensure accuracy and neutrality. That’s not to say Wikipedia is foolproof, so use it wisely.

For more information on why you should be thinking about using Wikipedia, read the following tip.

Find Better Coverage

If your source is questionable, look for a different source. Most major news outlets cover true big news stories. If the story you are researching does not appear in major news sources, be suspicious. Build your own library of trusted news sources. If you are reading or watching biased news, read what the other side is saying.

Use fact-checking sites like Snopes, Politifact, and FactCheck.org to investigate claims. For images, do a reverse image search on Google Image Search, Bing Visual Search, or TinEye Reverse Image Search.

Trace Claims, Quotes, and Media Back to the Original Context

Practice source genealogy. Trace your source back to its original author. Ask these questions:

What sources does the author quote? Are they credible?

Does the source use hyperlinks? Do they take you to credible sites or sources?

If the source contains a bibliography, open the sources to check for their credibility. Search terms or names used by the author if the source does not mention their origins—and be suspicious if the source doesn’t. Once you find the original source, determine whether your source accurately represents the original. If not, do not use it.

Spot fake news

The SIFT method will help you avoid misinformation, disinformation, and fake news. Study the table below to refresh your understanding of the differences between these three sources of bad data.

how do I cite my sources?

When you use secondary research, you always need to cite it. Presenting experts’ ideas, images, or other creative works without properly attributing the work to the original author is plagiarism, an academic and intellectual integrity breach that can damage your reputation. Never misrepresent someone else’s ideas as your own.

Even if you cite your sources, failing to clearly distinguish between your own words and your source’s words is plagiarism even if you rearrange or change some of the words. For a complete overview, consult the Purdue Owl’s site on plagiarism.

To avoid plagiarism, understand what it is and how to thoroughly document your sources to credit the original author and add credibility to your work.

Detect Plagiarism

Direct plagiarism, the most blatant form of plagiarism, is copying and pasting entire sentences, paragraphs, or passages and passing them off as your original work. Likewise, purchasing a paper from a paper mill is direct plagiarism.

Other forms of plagiarism are less blatant, but they are still plagiarism. This Grammarly blog post defines and provides examples of seven different kinds of plagiarism. Familiarize yourself with all forms so you are never guilty of this serious form of academic dishonesty.

With the advent of generative AI, make sure you understand your university's generative AI policy and how using generative AI can lead to plagiarism.

cite all sources

Citing your sources means using a combination of in-text and end-of-document references that attribute authorship of secondary sources. Depending on the type of document or presentation you are creating, you may use traditional, formal citations that you learned about in high school. Depending on your purpose and audience, you may be allowed to use permalinks or digital object identifier links. Regardless, thoroughly attribute information created by someone else so you are not guilty of plagiarism—even inadvertent plagiarism.

Traditional Citations

Myriad citation styles are available to document sources for formal documents, reports, and presentations. Follow the one prescribed by your class, school, organization, or professional community. Use a well-established style like APA, CMS, or MLA. 

American Psychological Association (APA)

The American Psychological Association (APA) focuses on the field of psychology and related disciplines. The APA style guide provides guidelines for citing sources in social sciences, education, business, and other fields.

APA is widely used for research papers, essays, and other scholarly writing. Emphasizing clarity and precision, APA uses author-date in-text citations and references at the end.

Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

Published by the University of Chicago Press, the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) offers guidelines for a variety of disciplines, like history, literature, and the arts. While CMS is commonly associated with academic publishing, its flexibility, and comprehensive guidelines make it suitable for certain business applications like formal reports, legal documents, and branding style guides.

Modern Language Association (MLA)

The Modern Language Association (MLA) focuses on language and literature fields. The MLA style guide provides guidelines for citing sources in humanities disciplines, like literature, languages, and cultural studies. MLA style emphasizes in-text citations with brief author-page references and Works Cited pages.

Other styles

Businesses generally use more industry-specific style guides—the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook for journalistic and public relations writing, the American Medical Association Manual of Style for medical writing, or the Microsoft Manual of Style for technology writing specifications.

The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) went so far as to create its own style guide called A Plain English Handbook: How to Create Clear SEC Disclosure Documents.

When you write or present, double-check to make sure you are using your organization’s or audience’s preferred style guide.

Hyperlinked Sources

In today’s digital environment, writers add hyperlinks to their sources so audiences can easily access secondary source material. The primary purpose of citations is to allow the audience to verify your claims, locate original sources, and understand the context of your work. When you use hyperlinked sources, always add lead-in phrases that signal the source’s ethos.

You may add hyperlinks to citations in any of the formal styles mentioned above. The major citation styles provide guidelines for formatting citations with provisions for URLs and DOIs, enhancing the accessibility of the sources you cite.

Permalink URL

A permalink is a permanent link or uniform resource locator (URL) that points to a specific web page or online content. Designed to be static and persistent, permalinks ensure that content remains accessible and functional over time. Commonly used in blogs, articles, forum posts, and other web-based content, permalinks provide a direct and stable link to a resource. They enable users to share or reference specific online content without worrying about the link becoming outdated or broken.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

A digital object identifier (DOI) is a unique alphanumeric string assigned to a digital object, typically used for scholarly articles, research papers, reports, and other academic or professional publications. DOIs, managed by registration agencies, are intended to provide a persistent and reliable link to the digital resource, even if its location or URL changes. Often used in academic citations, DOIs ensure that the referenced content can be easily accessed and identified.

EXAMPLE: CMS IN-TEXT AUTHOR-DATE CITATION AND FOOTNOTE/ENDNOTE CITATION

The Purdue OWL has excellent guides and examples for all major citation styles. Reference generators like CiteThisForMe are easy to use, but you should double-check your results to ensure accuracy.

You do not have to cite sources that are considered common knowledge; you also do not have to cite easily verifiable information.

Common Knowledge

Common knowledge includes widely accepted, widely known, and generally understood information it does not require citation because it is considered basic knowledge.

Examples

• The capital of France is Paris.
• Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level.
• The Earth Orbits the Sun.
  

Easily Verifiable Sources

Easily verifiable sources are those from which information can be quickly or reliably confirmed or checked. The sources are universally accessible.

Examples

• Mount Everest's height is officially recognized as 8.848.86 meters (29,031.7 feet) above sea level.
• The Dow Jones closed at 38.461 yesterday.

signal your paraphrases and summaries

Weave evidence into your writing by quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.

Paraphrasing

Often used to explain complex ideas, clarify, or incorporate an expert’s ideas into your work, paraphrasing rewords a passage or sentence from a source while retaining the original meaning. Use your voice and style to clearly, and concisely restate the expert’s ideas.

Summarizing

Summarizing, on the other hand, condenses longer texts like articles or chapters while retaining the core ideas and main points. Typically much shorter, summaries concisely capture the main idea of an article or chapter.

Whether you are paraphrasing or summarizing, smoothly introduce the information with a signal or lead-in phrase, which helps your readers understand that you're using someone else's ideas and provides context for the upcoming content.

If you use links, provide meaningful information. Beware of using a link to a nonpublic source like an article you accessed through your university’s library. You can avoid this problem by using the article’s digital object identifier (DOI).

For more information about paraphrasing and summarizing, watch the video below.

what sources MAY I use?

As the chapter section on plagiarism emphasized, failure to properly document your sources, whether intentional or accidental, is plagiarism. It’s unethical and possibly illegal, so avoid it. Your reputation and peace of mind are at stake, and the more successful you become, the more closely your every word will be watched, as this Duke University commencement speaker found out.

In addition to plagiarism, be aware of copyright and licensing restrictions. Don’t violate copyright by distributing documents or using images without proper permission.

Fair Use

Fair use is the legal doctrine that allows you to quote copyrighted material in your research. Section 107 of the Copyright Act gives guidelines for determining what qualifies as fair use. Ask yourself these questions:

1. What is the purpose of the use? Noncommercial, educational use is more likely to qualify as fair use. Transformative use, which adds something rather than just reproducing the original, is also more likely to qualify. Examples of transformative use include criticism, parody, news reporting, teaching, and scholarship.
2. What is the nature of the original work? The use of creative works, like art or unpublished works, is less likely to qualify.
3. How much of the work is being used? Using significant portions of a work is less likely to qualify.
4. What effect does the use have on the market for the original? The use is unlikely to qualify if it hurts the market for the original.

In Conclusion

The principles, examples, and tips in this chapter provide a blueprint for you to follow as you draft consequential business emails, documents, and presentations.

Demonstrate respect for your audience: Find and use credible information while giving credit where credit is due.

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