Index
Atom
- … water as comprising two hydrogen Atoms and one oxygen Atom, and the explanation…
- … entities such as molecules and Atoms (see Figure 1.5 (b)).
- … may be possible for the same Atoms to be arranged in different ways: Compounds…
- … suggestion that matter is composed of Atoms is attributed to the Greek philosophers…
- … consist of discrete, individual Atoms, some exist as molecules made up of…
- … the molecules differ in how the Atoms are connected to each other. There are…
- … symbols to indicate the types of Atoms followed by subscripts to show the…
- … molecular formula; it represents a diAtomic molecule of hydrogen, consisting…
- … (Figure 2.23) contains two carbon Atoms, four hydrogen Atoms, and two oxygen…
- … indicate the actual numbers of Atoms of each element in a molecule of the…
- … involves a rearrangement of the Atoms in water molecules into different molecules,…
- … which indicates the types of Atoms present and the simplest whole-number ratio…
- … find collections of individual Atoms. Only a few elements, such as the gases…
- An Atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that…
- … insight and are correct. Two C Atoms, four H Atoms, and two O Atoms can also…
- An Atom is so small that its size is difficult to imagine. One of the smallest…
- … formula (the types and numbers of Atoms in the molecule) but also shows how…
- An Atom is so light that its mass is also difficult to imagine. A billion lead…
- Atoms and Molecules
- … sulfur is composed of eight sulfur Atoms and is therefore written as S8. It…
- … molecules consisting of two or more Atoms of the same element. The compounds…
- … space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen Atoms are represented by black and…
- … relative orientations of the Atoms in space. (credit bottom left: modification…
- … b: modification of work by “Atoma”/Wikimedia Commons)
- … Each sphere represents one gold Atom. (credit a: modification of work by United…
- … ratio of 1 to 2. The titanium Atoms are gray and the oxygen Atoms are red.…
- … optical microscope); and (d and e) Atomic-level models of the fiber (spheres…
- … on the Latin word(s) for its Atomic number. For example, element 106 was called…
- This can be explained by Atomic theory if the copper-to-chlorine ratio in the…
- Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number of positively…
- … might notice that the sum of an Atom’s subAtomic particles does not equal…
- Atoms—and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them—are extremely…
- … occurring isotopes of elements with Atomic numbers 1 through 10 is given in…
- … element symbol (Figure 4.13). The Atomic number is sometimes written as a…
- Use this simulation to build Atoms of the first 10 elements, see which isotopes…
- If matter is composed of Atoms, what are Atoms composed of? Are they the smallest…
- … to indicate an element or an Atom of an element. For example, the symbol for…
- … attract); they are less massive than Atoms and indistinguishable, regardless…
- … iodine deficiency. The iodine Atoms are added as anions, and each has a 1−…
- … several common elements and their Atoms are listed in Table 4.3. Some symbols…
- … between a “plum pudding” Atom and a Rutherford Atom by firing α particles…
- … particles passed through the gold Atoms undeflected, they must have traveled…
- … matter could be explained using an Atomic theory. First published in 1807,…
- … any of Dalton’s postulates: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but…
- … to propose a model in which an Atom consists of a very small, positively charged…
- Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons
- … almost all of the mass of an Atom, with the number of protons only providing…
- The development of modern Atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure…
- … finite particles that they called Atomos, a term derived from the Greek word…
- … protons in the nucleus of an Atom is its Atomic number (Z). This is the defining…
- … suggestion that the numbers of Atoms of the elements in a given compound always…
- … product), despite having a different Atomic mass. This result, along with…
- … development in understanding the Atom came from Ernest Rutherford, a physicist…
- … be discussed in more detail, Atoms (and molecules) typically acquire charge…
- Dalton’s Atomic theory provides a microscopic explanation of the many macroscopic…
- … had now established that the Atom was not indivisible as Dalton had believed,…
- 4.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
- 4.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
- 4.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
- Composition of an Atom
- Testing Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- (a) Thomson suggested that Atoms resembled plum pudding, an English dessert…
- If an Atom could be expanded to the size of a football stadium, the nucleus…
- The symbol for an Atom indicates the element via its usual two-letter symbol,…
- … approximately 3 ×× 1022 copper Atoms (several dozen are represented as brown…
- Nuclear Compositions of Atoms of the Very Light Elements
- … small compared to the size of an Atom, very few α particles are deflected.…
- Properties of SubAtomic Particles
- … as red spheres) react, their Atoms rearrange to form a compound containing…
- … amount; it could represent one Atom of mercury or a large amount of mercury.
- … the combination of two types of Atoms—copper (brown spheres) and oxygen…
- … (b) has twice as many chlorine Atoms per copper Atom. (credit a: modification…
- … understand that no single boron Atom weighs exactly 10.8 amu; 10.8 amu is…
- … compounds that consist of one Atom of the element and one Atom of hydrogen.…
- The average mass of a neon Atom in the solar wind is 20.15 amu. (The average…
- … periodic relationship involved Atomic numbers rather than Atomic masses. The…
- … have noticed something about the Atomic masses of some of the elements. Element…
- … oxygen in a ratio of two of their Atoms to one oxygen Atom, whereas Ca, Sr,…
- … arranged according to increasing Atomic mass. But Mendeleev went one step…
- … table or listed in a table of Atomic masses is a weighted, average mass of…
- … isotopes: About 19.9% of all boron Atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu,…
- … beam that causes the sample’s Atoms (or molecules) to become electrically…
- … approximately one amu to the mass of an Atom, and each electron contributes…
- … gain experience with average Atomic mass, and check naturally occurring isotope…
- 5.1 Atomic Mass
- Calculation of Average Atomic Mass
- … numerically equivalent to its Atomic or formula weight in amu. Per the amu…
- … chemistry. For example, Dalton’s Atomic theory was an attempt to explain…
- 4.586 ×× 1022 Au Atoms
- … of neutral sodium and chlorine Atoms were used in this computation, rather…
- … defined not only by the types of Atoms or ions it contains, but by the quantity…
- … system, including research on the anAtomy and physiology of the brain. Great…
- … element contains the same number of Atoms as 1 mole of any other element.…
- … moles and calculate number of Atoms or molecules in the sample. Likewise,…
- … molecule contains seven carbon Atoms, and so the number of C Atoms in the…
- … represents the numbers and types of Atoms composing a single molecule of the…
- … compounds: by summing the average Atomic masses of all the Atoms in the compound’s…
- … molecule, C9H8O4, is the sum of the Atomic masses of nine carbon Atoms, eight…
- … molecules C4 H10; 9.545 ×× 1023 Atoms H
- While Atomic mass and molar mass are numerically equivalent, keep in mind that…
- … reasonable estimate for the number of Atoms in the sample would be on the…
- … of saccharin? How many carbon Atoms are in the same sample?
- … specific measure of the number of Atoms or molecules in a sample of matter.…
- … described the development of the Atomic mass unit, the concept of average…
- Deriving Number of Atoms from Mass for an Element
- Deriving the Number of Atoms and Molecules from the Mass of a Compound
- … wire is composed of many, many Atoms of Cu. (credit: Emilian Robert Vicol)
- … which is the sum of the average Atomic masses of each of its constituent Atoms.…
- … sample contains 6.022 ×× 1023 Atoms —1.00 mol of Atoms. From left to right…
- … of the electronic structure of Atoms and molecules. The simplest example of…
- … energies of electrons within Atoms and molecules. Much of modern technology…
- … comparable to the spaces between Atoms in a crystalline solid, X-rays are…
- … needed to assume the vibrating Atoms required quantized energies, which he…
- … based on the premise that the Atoms composing the oven vibrated at increasing…
- … that increase the energy of an Atom involve the absorption of light and are…
- … Thus, the electron in a hydrogen Atom usually moves in the n = 1 orbit, the…
- … discrete lines for the hydrogen Atom were found in the UV and IR regions.…
- … broken apart into separate H Atoms and we see a blue-pink color. Passing the…
- … Bohr attempted to resolve the Atomic paradox by ignoring classical electromagnetism’s…
- … levels for an electron in an Atom. As a consequence, the model laid the foundation…
- … photoelectric effect, and the hydrogen Atom), and all involving Planck’s…
- … twentieth century, the picture of Atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded…
- The Atomic number, Z, of hydrogen is 1; k = 2.179 ×× 10–18 J; and the electron…
- Bohr’s model of the hydrogen Atom provides insight into the behavior of matter…
- … circular orbits for hydrogen-like Atoms are given in terms of their radii…
- … it is held less tightly in the Atom. Note that as n gets larger and the orbits…
- … charges, and so one-electron Atoms and ions are collectively referred to as…
- … concerned the light emitted from Atoms and molecules. When solids, liquids,…
- … origin of discrete spectra in Atoms and molecules was extremely puzzling to…
- … the Bohr model of the hydrogen Atom, and the vertical arrows depict the energy…
- … hydrogen, calcium, and mercury Atoms.
- … and energy levels in a hydrogen Atom. The more negative the calculated value,…
- … particle (such as an electron in an Atom), ψ is the wavefunction of this…
- … wavelengths of its constituent Atoms and molecules, which, while much larger…
- … travelling through a regular Atomic pattern in a crystal. The regularly spaced…
- … described previously, electrons in Atoms can exist only on discrete energy…
- … to characterize an orbital. An Atomic orbital is a general region in an Atom…
- … ml, are properties of specific Atomic orbitals that also define in what part…
- … variables. For example, when an Atom absorbs a photon and makes a transition…
- … that the electron in a hydrogen Atom could be better thought of as being a…
- … where electrons reside in an Atom can be used to look at electronic transitions,…
- … orbitals (location of electrons in Atoms), their different energies, and other…
- … of the diameter of a hydrogen Atom), then our determination of its momentum…
- … the energy of an electron in an Atom is greater for greater values of n. This…
- … experimental data for the hydrogen Atom and was widely accepted, but it also…
- … of magnitude as the size of an Atom. This means that electron wavelike behavior…
- An electron in an Atom is completely described by four quantum numbers: n,…
- … Any electron, regardless of the Atomic orbital it is located in, can only…
- … ml. In the case of a hydrogen Atom or a one-electron ion (such as He+, Li2+,…
- … quantum numbers of electrons in Atoms are briefly summarized in Table 10.1.
- … occupying the same orbital in an Atom. A spectral line corresponding to a…
- … Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms
- … Quantum–Mechanical Model of an Atom
- … orbitals in a multi-electron Atom.
- The alkali metal sodium (Atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon…
- … table, the alkali metal potassium (Atomic number 19), we might expect that…
- An Atom of the alkaline earth metal beryllium, with an Atomic number of 4,…
- … well before any idea of their Atomic structure was available. Now we can understand…
- … alkaline earth metal magnesium (Atomic number 12), with its 12 electrons in…
- An Atom of boron (Atomic number 5) contains five electrons. The n = 1 shell…
- The energy of Atomic orbitals increases as the principal quantum number, n,…
- Electrons in successive Atoms on the periodic table tend to fill low-energy…
- Ions are formed when Atoms gain or lose electrons. A cation (positively charged…
- … noble gas helium, which has an Atomic number of 2. The helium Atom contains…
- Nitrogen (Atomic number 7) fills the 1s and 2s subshells and has one electron…
- … the configuration of the helium Atom, which is identical to that of the filled…
- The next Atom is the alkali metal lithium with an Atomic number of 3. The first…
- Having introduced the basics of Atomic structure and quantum mechanics, we…
- Carbon (Atomic number 6) has six electrons. Four of them fill the 1s and 2s…
- … occur. For example, niobium (Nb, Atomic number 41) is predicted to have the…
- … earlier, the periodic table arranges Atoms based on increasing Atomic number…
- … electrons in the orbitals of an Atom is called the electron configuration…
- … elements as well as that for Atoms of each of the known elements.
- … configuration for any particular Atom, we can “build” the structures in…
- … the transition metal scandium (Atomic number 21), additional electrons are…
- … completely filled in a helium Atom.
- … transition metals chromium (Cr; Atomic number 24) and copper (Cu; Atomic number…
- … orbital diagram for a selection of Atoms in the first and second periods of…
- 11.1 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
- Orbital Energies and Atomic Structure
- … depicts the energy order for Atomic orbitals and is useful for deriving ground-state…
- Generalized energy-level diagram for Atomic orbitals in an Atom with two or…
- … for the valence subshells of Atoms. By “building up” from hydrogen, this…
- … removing an electron from a neutral Atom because of the greater electrostatic…
- … counterintuitive because it implies that Atoms with more electrons have a…
- … the metallic character of the Atoms increases. Oxygen, at the top of group…
- … They are (1) size (radius) of Atoms and ions, (2) ionization energies, and…
- … discussed in this section (size of Atoms and ions, effective nuclear charge,…
- … electrons to the valence shell of an Atom. This results in a greater repulsion…
- Atoms and ions that have the same electron configuration are said to be isoelectronic.…
- … is released when the gaseous Atom accepts an electron. However, for some elements,…
- … adding an electron to a gaseous Atom to form an anion (negative ion).
- … bound electron from a gaseous Atom in its ground state is called its first…
- … first ionization energy and the Atomic number of several elements. The values…
- … establish a definite size of an Atom. However, there are several practical…
- … number of protons as the parent Atom; it is smaller than the Atom from which…
- We also might expect the Atom at the top of each group to have the most negative…
- … an electron across a series of Atoms as the effective nuclear charge of the…
- … required to remove electrons from Atoms or ions, so ionization processes are…
- … of the periodic table showing Atomic size or graphs of ionization energies…
- Sorting Atomic Radii
- … periods are plotted against their Atomic number.
- (a) The radius of an Atom is defined as one-half the distance between the nuclei…
- … cation is smaller than the parent Atom (Al), due to the lost electrons; the…
- Within each period, the trend in Atomic radius decreases as Z increases; for…
- … molecules forms from two moles of H Atoms:
- … the attractive forces that hold Atoms or ions together within a compound is…
- … the first to be lost when these Atoms ionize. When the inner transition metals…
- Most monAtomic anions form when a neutral nonmetal Atom gains enough electrons…
- … Bi5+, a partial loss of these Atoms’ valence shell electrons can also lead…
- As you have learned, ions are Atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge.…
- … bond is to consider the types of Atoms involved and their relative positions…
- … exceptions. For example, the H and F Atoms in HF have an electronegativity…
- … covalent and ionic bonds. The Atoms in polyAtomic ions, such as OH–, NO3−,NO3−,…
- … by a property of the bonding Atoms called electronegativity. Electronegativity…
- … from this figure because these Atoms usually do not share electrons with others…
- … hydrogen molecules and cause the Atoms to separate:
- When forming a cation, an Atom of a main group element tends to lose all of…
- … possibility of full d subshells in Atoms of elements in the fourth and greater…
- … the periodic table. Nonmetal Atoms have relatively high electron affinities…
- Neutral Atoms and their associated ions have very different physical and chemical…
- When an element composed of Atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) reacts…
- … electrons around each individual Atom consists of six nonbonding electrons…
- In the case of Cl2, each Atom starts off with seven valence electrons, and…
- … between metallic and nonmetallic Atoms. A different type of bonding results…
- … electronegativity (ΔEN) of two bonded Atoms provides a rough measure of the…
- … metal, and carbonate is a polyAtomic ion; Li2CO3 is predicted to be ionic.
- … absorbed when an isolated gas-phase Atom acquires an electron, measured in…
- Nonmetal Atoms frequently form covalent bonds with other nonmetal Atoms. For…
- When Atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, they generally gain enough electrons…
- … reactions, the nucleus of each Atom (and thus the identity of the element)…
- … a system for naming some polyAtomic ions; -ate and -ite are suffixes designating…
- … designate the positive and negative Atoms in a polar covalent bond using a…
- … (covalent compounds) result when Atoms share, rather than transfer (gain or…
- When the Atoms linked by a covalent bond are different, the bonding electrons…
- Many ionic compounds contain polyAtomic ions (Table 13.1) as the cation, the…
- … periodic table to predict whether an Atom will form an anion or a cation,…
- … compounds containing only monAtomic ions (such as NaCl) and for many compounds…
- … negative ions (anions). A nitrogen Atom must gain three electrons to have…
- … discussed so far are called monAtomic ions, that is, they are ions formed…
- If the Atoms that form a covalent bond are identical, as in H2, Cl2, and other…
- … Formula of a Compound with a PolyAtomic Anion
- … energy of two separate hydrogen Atoms (right) decreases as they approach each…
- Common PolyAtomic Ions
- The Atoms in sodium chloride (common table salt) are arranged to (a) maximize…
- (a) A sodium Atom (Na) has equal numbers of protons and electrons (11) and…
- … difference increases between two Atoms, the bond becomes more ionic.
- When only one Atom of the first element is present, the prefix mono- is usually…
- … ionic compounds containing polyAtomic ions, and one specific, very important…
- … (variable charge)? Are the ions monAtomic or polyAtomic? If the compound is…
- … the combination ratios of the Atoms in a molecule, the names for molecular…
- … prefixes to specify the numbers of Atoms of each element. The name of the…
- … binary compound containing monAtomic ions consists of the name of the cation…
- … hydrogen combined with a polyAtomic, oxygen-containing ion. To name oxyacids:
- Compounds containing polyAtomic ions are named similarly to those containing…
- Compounds Containing PolyAtomic Ions
- Compounds Containing Only MonAtomic Ions
- … often present in water as the polyAtomic ions chromate, CrO42−CrO42− (left),…
- … molecules that contain central Atoms that do not have a filled valence shell.…
- … electrons on the constituent Atoms. See these examples:
- … molecule: one single bond between Atoms and three lone pairs of electrons…
- … covalent molecules have central Atoms that do not have eight electrons in…
- … the formation of cations from Atoms, as shown here for sodium and calcium:
- An Atom like the boron Atom in BF3, which does not have eight electrons, is…
- … types of bonds that form between Atoms and/or ions. In all cases, these bonds…
- The number of bonds that an Atom can form can often be predicted from the number…
- … five valence electrons in the Atomic Lewis symbol: one lone pair and three…
- … the formation of anions from Atoms, as shown here for chlorine and sulfur:
- … structure indicates that each Cl Atom has three pairs of electrons that are…
- … called a single bond. Each Cl Atom interacts with eight valence electrons:…
- … pairs are shared by a pair of Atoms, as in carbon monoxide (CO) and the cyanide…
- … pairs of electrons with other Atoms because they have empty d orbitals in…
- … the valence shells of the outer Atoms with eight electrons. These additional…
- … previously mentioned, when a pair of Atoms shares one pair of electrons, we…
- … bonding in molecules and polyAtomic ions. For example, when two chlorine Atoms…
- … valence electron configurations of Atoms and monAtomic ions. A Lewis symbol…
- … the outer shell of the central Atom are lone pairs:
- … molecules (C60) contain only carbon Atoms (left) arranged to form a geometric…
- Cations are formed when Atoms lose electrons, represented by fewer Lewis dots,…
- In PCl5, the central Atom phosphorus shares five pairs of electrons. In SF6,…
- The formal charge of an Atom in a molecule is the hypothetical charge the Atom…
- N: 0; all three Cl Atoms: 0
- … structures for molecules and polyAtomic ions. As we have seen, however, in…
- … different. A double bond between two Atoms is shorter (and stronger) than…
- … However, the first arrangement of Atoms is preferred because it has the lowest…
- … formal charge calculated for an Atom is not the actual charge of the Atom…
- … ion, an ion formed from a carbon Atom, a nitrogen Atom, and a sulfur Atom,…
- … with the same arrangement of Atoms can be written for a molecule or ion, the…
- The number of Atoms with formal charges are minimized (Guideline 2), there…
- … structure with a terminal oxygen Atom best satisfies the criteria for the…
- … that the less electronegative Atom typically occupies the central position,…
- One oxygen Atom must have a double bond to carbon to complete the octet on…
- … of the formal charges of all Atoms in a molecule must be zero; the sum of…
- The arrangement of Atoms in a molecule or ion is called its molecular structure.…
- … two bonds that include a common Atom, usually measured in degrees. A bond…
- … electron density around the carbon Atom—each double bond counts as one region,…
- When a central Atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we…
- … opposite sides of the central Atom (Figure 17.12). The five Atoms are all…
- Answers will vary. For example, an Atom with four single bonds, a double bond,…
- When a molecule or polyAtomic ion has only one central Atom, the molecular…
- … electron density around a central Atom in a molecule form a linear geometry;…
- … add that group to the central Atom. Once you have the complete molecule, rotate…
- … Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom
- … electron density around the central Atom, so it has a tetrahedral electron-pair…
- … tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen Atoms. VSEPR structures like this…
- … possible, on opposite sides of the Be Atom.
- … includes only the placement of the Atoms in the molecule is called the molecular…
- … four bonds from the nitrogen Atom to hydrogen Atoms and no lone pairs. We…
- … around the central beryllium Atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons…
- … molecule, the three hydrogen Atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not…
- Consider each central Atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:
- … electron pairs around the central Atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal…
- … preservative for biological and anAtomical specimens (Figure 17.1). This molecule…
- … electron-pair geometry around a central Atom is not the same thing as its…
- … to VSEPR theory, the terminal Atom locations (Xs in Figure 17.6) are equivalent…
- … bond angles around a central Atom, of a molecule from an examination of the…
- … electron pairs around each central Atom and, usually, the correct arrangement…
- … electrons around the central carbon Atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral,…
- For diAtomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines…
- … opposite sides of the carbon Atom. The bond moments cancel because they are…
- … from the less electronegative Atom toward the more electronegative Atom. A…
- … similar to CO2, but a sulfur Atom has replaced one of the oxygen Atoms. To…
- … electronegativities of the bonded Atoms is H < C < Cl, and so the bond moments…
- … polar covalent bonds connect two Atoms with differing electronegativities,…
- … Carbon Single Bonds to other Atoms
- … Groups with Single Bonds to HeteroAtoms
- … with Multiple Bonds to HeteroAtoms
- … abbreviation includes the oxygen Atoms and negative charges associated with…
- … haloalkane. The presence of a halogen Atom (F, Cl, Br, or I), is often represented…
- … are characterized by nitrogen Atoms with single bonds to hydrogen and carbon.…
- In sulfides, the oxygen Atom of an ether has been replaced by a sulfur Atom.
- … solely of carbon and hydrogen Atoms. Alkanes are said to be saturated hydrocarbons,…
- Functional groups are small groups of Atoms that exhibit a characteristic reactivity.…
- … chemistry, and is found as the central Atom in the phosphate group. Many biological…
- … on the other side to a heteroAtom (in organic chemistry, this term generally…
- … ways. In a ketone, the carbon Atom of a carbonyl is bonded to two other carbons.…
- … passing through the chlorine Atom and bisecting the opposite carbon-carbon…
- … symmetry making it achiral. A carbon Atom that is bonded to four different…
- … nonidentical groups on each carbon Atom and exists as both cis and trans…
- … chapter are asymmetric carbon Atoms, but it should be recognized that other…
- … One of the doubly bonded carbon Atoms does have two different groups attached,…
- … is an alkane with five carbon Atoms. It has three constitutional isomers,…
- … structural drawings. If the bromine Atom is replaced by another chlorine to…
- … alkenes requires that the carbon Atoms of a double bond and the two Atoms…
- … in which the two chlorine (Cl) Atoms lie on the same side of the molecule…
- … nonidentical groups on each carbon Atom (H and Cl on one and H and Br on…
- … molecular formula and the same Atom-to-Atom connectivity, so they are not…
- … electron configuration of an Atom or ion is key to understanding the chemical…
- … permanently concentrated more on one Atom than the other. Notice we say Atom,…
- … the location of electrons in Atoms and the properties of elements, we can…
- … separation of charge between Atoms. It is a simple model when applied to diAtomic…
- … Just as important is that some Atoms bond by sharing rather than exchanging…
- … two p orbitals from different Atoms; the overlap is greater when the orbitals…
- … the 1s orbital of the hydrogen Atoms with the 2p orbitals of the oxygen Atom.…
- The sulfur Atom in sulfur hexafluoride, SF6, exhibits sp3d2 hybridization.…
- … differences in an isolated Be Atom and in the bonded Be Atom in the orbital…
- … methane, CH4, consists of a carbon Atom surrounded by four hydrogen Atoms…
- The selenium Atom is sp3d hybridized.
- … electrons. For example, the nitrogen Atom in ammonia is surrounded by three…
- The sulfur Atom is surrounded by two bonds and one lone pair of electrons in…
- … C2H4, shows us that each carbon Atom is surrounded by one other carbon Atom…
- … trigonal planar, and the boron Atom is involved in three bonds to hydrogen…
- … correct hybridization of the Atoms. However, many structures also include…
- Thinking in terms of overlapping Atomic orbitals is one way for us to explain…
- … determine that each of the carbon Atoms is bonded to three other Atoms with…
- … electrons. Thus we say that the oxygen Atom is sp3 hybridized, with two of…
- The valence orbitals of an Atom surrounded by a tetrahedral arrangement of…
- Any central Atom surrounded by just two regions of valence electron density…
- The beryllium Atom in a gaseous BeCl2 molecule is an example of a central Atom…
- … electrons around the phosphorus Atom) directed toward the corners of a trigonal…
- … of each of the four hydrogen Atoms overlaps with one of the four sp3 orbitals…
- The carbon Atom is surrounded by three regions of electron density, positioned…
- … valence orbitals of a central Atom surrounded by three regions of electron…
- When Atomic orbitals hybridize, the valence electrons occupy the newly created…
- … the σ bonds from each carbon Atom are formed using a set of sp2 hybrid orbitals…
- … unhybridized p orbitals remain on the Atom (Figure 21.23). We find this situation…
- … describe the electronic structure of Atoms. We can use quantum mechanics to…
- … the energies of two hydrogen Atoms (the colored curve) changes as they approach…
- … two π bonds. Between any two Atoms, the first bond formed will always be…
- … ethene molecule, the four hydrogen Atoms and the two carbon Atoms are all…
- Any central Atom surrounded by three regions of electron density will exhibit…
- … in ethane has four neighboring Atoms arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron—three…
- … as the overlap of half-filled Atomic orbitals (each containing a single electron)…
- … molecules containing small central Atoms, in which the valence electron pairs…
- … use five of the valence shell Atomic orbitals (the s orbital, the three p…
- The hybridization of an Atom is determined based on the number of regions of…
- 21.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
- … of Hybrid Orbitals to Central Atoms
- Atomic Orbital Overlap
- … hybridization in the central Atom and a trigonal bipyramid form. SF4 and ClF4+ClF4+…
- The four valence Atomic orbitals from an isolated carbon Atom all hybridize…
- … The interaction of two hydrogen Atoms changes as a function of distance. (b)…
- Each carbon Atom in benzene, C6H6, is sp2 hybridized, independently of which…
- … hybrid orbitals on the carbon Atom with one sp2 hybrid orbital on the other…
- … a p orbital (red) of the same Atom produces two sp hybrid orbitals (yellow).…
- In ethene, each carbon Atom is sp2 hybridized, and the sp2 orbitals and the…
- … with the 1s orbitals of hydrogen Atoms to form the O–H bonds in H2O. This…
- … sp hybrid orbitals of a carbon Atom, which lie in a straight line, and the…
- … electron-pair geometries. For example, an Atom surrounded by three regions…
- In an isolated B Atom, there are one 2s and three 2p valence orbitals. When…
- The central Atom(s) in each of the structures shown contain three regions of…
- … the 2p orbitals on an oxygen Atom (red) with the 1s orbitals of two hydrogen…
- The relative energy levels of Atomic and molecular orbitals are typically shown…
- … are assigned to one specific Atom, MO theory uses the combination of Atomic…
- … molecules composed of two identical Atoms (H2 or Cl2, for example). Such molecules…
- … bond order for each of the diAtomic molecules. As shown in Table 22.2, Be2…
- The combination of two lithium Atoms to form a lithium molecule, Li2, is analogous…
- … distribution of electrons in Atoms is described using Atomic orbitals. Using…
- In the molecular orbitals of diAtomic molecules, each Atom also has two sets…
- … bonds formed from degenerate Atomic orbitals. Similarly, in molecular orbital…
- … 22.11. All of the other period 2 diAtomic molecules do have s-p mixing, which…
- … mathematical process of combining Atomic orbitals to generate molecular orbitals…
- A helium Atom has two electrons, both of which are in its 1s orbital. Two helium…
- … orbitals (Figure 22.4). If two Atoms are located along the x-axis in a Cartesian…
- … form from the overlap of two Atomic s orbitals on adjacent Atoms. The two…
- … predict electron configurations of Atoms. Valence electrons are assigned to…
- … no bond is formed between two Atoms.
- … nuclei and help hold the two Atoms together, making it a bonding orbital.…
- … double bond, and each oxygen Atom has eight electrons around it. However,…
- … (H2) forms from two hydrogen Atoms. When the Atomic orbitals of the two Atoms…
- … animations visualizing the calculated Atomic orbitals combining to form various…
- … sample there are a huge number of Atoms (typically > 1023 Atoms), and therefore…
- … in the same way that we fill Atomic orbitals, by the Aufbau principle. Lower-energy…
- … molecules with more than two Atoms relies on the same basic ideas as the diAtomic…
- When two identical Atomic orbitals on different Atoms combine, two molecular…
- … pairs of electrons between two Atoms. Thus a single bond has a bond order…
- … strength; a bond between two given Atoms becomes stronger as the bond order…
- Eight possible homonuclear diAtomic molecules might be formed by the Atoms…
- Bonding in DiAtomic Molecules
- The DiAtomic Molecules of the Second Period
- … lower energy than the separated Atoms.
- … formed by the combination of two s Atomic orbitals. The dots (·) indicate…
- … diagrams for each homonuclear diAtomic molecule in the second period. The…
- … Molecular Orbitals in Homonuclear DiAtomic Molecules of Period Two Elements
- … magnetic field is strongest. Other diAtomic molecules (like N2) flow past…
- … diagram for the homonuclear diAtomic Be2+,Be2+, showing the molecular orbitals…
- Combining wave functions of two p Atomic orbitals along the internuclear axis…
- … during the World War II, at the Atomic energy installation in Oak Ridge, Tennessee,…
- … in Figure 25.8). The gaseous Atoms or molecules are, of course, unaware of…
- … in a liquid solvent since the Atoms or molecules comprising a gas are far…
- … although some gases are composed of Atomic species, for example, the noble…
- … boiling points with increasing Atomic/molecular size may be rationalized by…
- … molecule, the more electronegative Cl Atom bears the partial negative charge,…
- … attractive forces between the Atoms, molecules, or ions that make up each…
- … attractive forces between neutral Atoms and molecules are known as van der…
- Dispersion forces that develop between Atoms in different molecules can attract…
- … consist of the same number of Atoms and have approximately the same molecular…
- … covalent bonds that hold the Atoms of the individual DNA molecules together.…
- … example, the bonds between the Atoms. Intermolecular forces are the attractions…
- … molecule contains a hydrogen Atom bonded to a fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen…
- … regardless of the nature of the Atoms or molecules composing the substance.…
- … particle will be used to refer to an Atom, molecule, or ion. Note that we…
- … illustrated here for two nonpolar diAtomic molecules.
- … cohesive forces between mercury Atoms are much greater than the adhesive forces…
- … Chemistry in Context. In Chemistry: Atoms First 2e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-Atoms-first-2e/pages/10-2-properties-of-liquids
- … increase the average energy of its Atoms, molecules, or ions and the solid…
- … one might first balance C and H Atoms by changing the coefficients for the…
- The numbers of H Atoms on the reactant and product sides of the equation are…
- … meaning that equal numbers of Atoms for each element involved in the reaction…
- … equal numbers of both H and O Atoms on the reactant and product sides, and…
- This results in seven O Atoms on the product side of the equation, an odd number—no…
- The numbers of N and O Atoms on either side of the equation are now equal,…
- Comparing the number of H and O Atoms on either side of this equation confirms…
- … Directly measuring numbers of Atoms and molecules is, however, not an easy…
- … count the number of each type of Atom present in the unbalanced equation.
- … integers without upsetting the Atom balance. For example, consider the reaction…
- … balance the number of oxygen Atoms. To balance the number of oxygen Atoms,…
- The N Atom balance has been upset by this change; it is restored by changing…
- … symbols to represent individual Atoms. When Atoms gain or lose electrons to…
- The H Atom balance was upset by this change, but it is easily reestablished…
- Green Chemistry and Atom Economy
- … synthesizing chemical products. The Atom economy of a process is a measure…
- … mole (206 g) of ibuprofen, an Atom economy of 40%. In the 1990s, an alternative…
- Though the definition of Atom economy at first glance appears very similar…
- … steps and exhibits an impressive Atom economy. (credit a: modification of…
- … may be possible for the same Atoms to be arranged in different ways: Compounds…
- … ratio is one carbon to two oxygen Atoms, the empirical formula is CO2.
- … subscripts by two, retaining the same Atom ratio and yielding Cl2O7 as the…
- … (the sum of 12 amu for one C Atom, 2 amu for two H Atoms, and 16 amu for one…
- … mass is the sum of the average Atomic masses of all the Atoms represented…
- … from its formula mass and the Atomic masses of its constituent elements. A…
- … consist of discrete, individual Atoms, some exist as molecules made up of…
- … use of molar masses instead of Atomic and formula masses, as demonstrated…
- … the molecules differ in how the Atoms are connected to each other. There are…
- … relative numbers, not masses, of Atoms in the substance. Therefore, any experimentally…
- … symbols to indicate the types of Atoms followed by subscripts to show the…
- … molecular formula; it represents a diAtomic molecule of hydrogen, consisting…
- … (Figure 33.6) contains two carbon Atoms, four hydrogen Atoms, and two oxygen…
- … indicate the actual numbers of Atoms of each element in a molecule of the…
- … which indicates the types of Atoms present and the simplest whole-number ratio…
- … insight and are correct. Two C Atoms, four H Atoms, and two O Atoms can also…
- … Determining the absolute numbers of Atoms that compose a single molecule of…
- … formula (the types and numbers of Atoms in the molecule) but also shows how…
- … space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen Atoms are represented by black and…
- … ratio of 1 to 2. The titanium Atoms are gray and the oxygen Atoms are red.…
- … relative orientations of the Atoms in space. (credit bottom left: modification…
- … sulfur is composed of eight sulfur Atoms and is therefore written as S8. It…
- … small pan. More mass means more Atoms are present in the larger pan, so it…
- … associated with the random motion of Atoms and molecules. Temperature is a…
- … thermal energy) substance (L). The Atoms and molecules in H have a higher…
- … when the kinetic energy of its Atoms or molecules is raised. The greater kinetic…
- … different temperatures, and their Atoms have different average kinetic energies.…
- … molecules forms from two moles of H Atoms:
- … σ bond between the same two Atoms. In a σ bond, there is a greater degree…
- … the energy of the two separated Atoms. This is the quantity of energy released…
- … hydrogen molecules and cause the Atoms to separate:
- … with the interaction of just two Atoms.
- … because covalent bonds hold the Atoms together. We measure the strength of…
- … determine the electron affinity of an Atom.
- Different interAtomic distances produce different lattice energies. For example,…
- … strength describes how strongly each Atom is joined to another Atom, and therefore…
- Molecules with three or more Atoms have two or more bonds. The sum of all bond…
- … strength of a bond between two Atoms increases as the number of electron pairs…
- … energy converts the gaseous cesium Atoms into cations. In the next step, we…
- … energy. The bond energy for a diAtomic molecule, DX–Y, is defined as the…
- … The interaction of two hydrogen Atoms changes as a function of distance. (b)…
- … energy of two separate hydrogen Atoms (right) decreases as they approach each…
- … phase, in which a given number of Atoms or molecules occupy a much greater…
- … the structure of the particles (Atoms or molecules) that comprise the substance.…
- … 39.5. In the solid phase, the Atoms or molecules are restricted to nearly…
- … possible location for each identical Atom or molecule comprising the crystal…
- … locations and energies of the Atoms or molecules that make up a system. The…
- … of kinetic energies among the Atoms or molecules of the substance is also…
- … contains a large number of oxygen Atoms that link parts of the structure together,…
Matter
- … and describe the behavior of Matter and energy in three different domains: macroscopic,…
- What are some changes in Matter that are essential to daily life? Digesting and…
- … to understand the behavior of Matter extend back for more than 2500 years. As…
- … and use specific components of Matter. A variety of drugs such as aloe, myrrh,…
- … people have tried to convert Matter into more useful forms. Our Stone Age ancestors…
- … contributions to how to manipulate Matter, it was not scientific by modern standards.…
- A fourth state of Matter, plasma, occurs naturally in the interiors of stars.…
- … various major classifications of Matter is shown in (Figure 2.6).
- … gases are the three states of Matter commonly found on earth (Figure 2.1). A…
- The first suggestion that Matter is composed of atoms is attributed to the Greek…
- Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it is all…
- Matter can be classified into several categories. Two broad categories are mixtures…
- … composed of two or more types of Matter that can be present in varying amounts…
- … holds true for all conversions of Matter, convincing examples are few and far…
- The change of one type of Matter into another type (or the inability to change)…
- … produces one or more types of Matter that differ from the Matter present before…
- Properties of Matter fall into one of two categories. If the property depends…
- The law of conservation of Matter summarizes many scientific observations about…
- … is a measure of the amount of Matter in it. One way to measure an object’s…
- … property is a characteristic of Matter that is not associated with a change…
- Some samples of Matter appear to have properties of solids, liquids, and/or gases…
- … Phases and Classifications of Matter
- Classifying Matter
- … most common states or phases of Matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
- … laws describing the behavior of Matter and energy in both the macroscopic and…
- If Matter is composed of atoms, what are atoms composed of? Are they the smallest…
- … Aristotelian view of the composition of Matter held sway for over two thousand…
- … discussion of the basic structure of Matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers,…
- … many macroscopic properties of Matter that you’ve learned about. For example,…
- … volumes of bulk quantities of Matter) using relatively simple tools (balances…
- … yield electrically neutral bulk Matter. The formula mass for an ionic compound…
- … atoms or molecules in a sample of Matter. One Latin connotation for the word…
- … energy is transferred through Matter (the rope, water, or air) while the Matter…
- … restricted to travel through Matter. As Maxwell showed, electromagnetic waves…
- … comprising two separate domains: Matter composed of particles moving according…
- … fundamental laws of physics is that Matter is most stable with the lowest possible…
- … insight into the behavior of Matter at the microscopic level, but it does not…
- … wavelength is only appreciable for Matter that has a very small mass and/or…
- … Broglie proposed the wave nature of Matter, two scientists at Bell Laboratories,…
- We know how Matter behaves in the macroscopic world—objects that are large…
- … 1920s that very small pieces of Matter follow a different set of rules from…
- … revise the way they thought about Matter.
- … rows of the table). It does not Matter which X is replaced with a lone pair…
- … different. In alcohols, what Matters is how many other carbons the alcohol carbon…
- … understanding the structure of Matter at the atomic level, we can begin to build…
- … the liquid and solid states of Matter.
- … with increased distance. If all Matter were composed of ions that would be the…
- … discovered the law of conservation of Matter, discovered the role of oxygen…
- … reached this limit because, no Matter how long you stir the solution, undissolved…
- … in solid, liquid, and gaseous Matter:
- … interactive simulation on states of Matter, phase transitions, and intermolecular…
- … heat. The relation applies to Matter being heated or cooled, but not undergoing…
- … liquid states. This phase of Matter is called a supercritical fluid, and the…
- … phases. This unique state of Matter is called a supercritical fluid, a topic…
- … with the law of conservation of Matter. It may be confirmed by simply summing…
- Matter undergoing chemical reactions and physical changes can release or absorb…
- … are fossilized plant and animal Matter.
- Like Matter, energy comes in different types. One scheme classifies energy into…
- … altitude of 5895 m, and it does not Matter whether you hiked there or parachuted…
- … thermal energy in a sample of Matter will cause its temperature to increase.…
- … to the law of conservation of Matter (seen in an earlier chapter), there is…
- … heat capacity (C) of a body of Matter is the quantity of heat (q) it absorbs…
- … of the substance is all that Matters. For example, the small cast iron frying…
- … (w) is the process of causing Matter to move against an opposing force. For…
- … from the hotter to the cooler Matter. (c) The two objects reach “thermal equilibrium”…
- … is determined by whether the Matter in question gains or loses heat, per definition).…
- … and its surroundings (all other Matter, including components of the measurement…
- … represent the changes in both Matter and energy. In a thermochemical equation,…
- … net increase in dispersal of Matter
- … solution, decreased dispersal of Matter
- … confirmed to be the one in which the Matter is most uniformly dispersed or distributed…
- … between entropy, microstates, and Matter/energy dispersal described previously…
- This Matter dispersal model of entropy is often described qualitatively in terms…
- … the various contributions of Matter and energy dispersal that contribute to…
- … to a more uniform dispersal of Matter and energy and a greater number of microstates.…
- … yields a much lesser dispersal of Matter, since the molecules will occupy a…
- … greater, more uniform dispersal of Matter that results when the gas is allowed…
- … yields a much greater dispersal of Matter, since the molecules will occupy a…
- … yields a more uniform dispersal of Matter, since the initial state of the system…
- … dispersal or distribution of Matter and/or energy. In each case, a spontaneous…
- Dispersal of Matter and Energy
- Redistribution of Matter during a Spontaneous Process
Space
- … orientations of the atoms in Space can be different. For example, the compound…
- … defined as anything that occupies Space and has mass, and it is all around…
- … atomic sizes not to scale, and a Space-filling model shows the relative sizes…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (c) a Space-filling model. (d) Benzene is a clear…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (c) a Space-filling model. Sulfur atoms are represented…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (d) a Space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen atoms…
- … orientations of the atoms in Space. (credit bottom left: modification of work…
- … boiling temperature of water. The Space between the two temperatures is divided…
- … the measure of the amount of Space occupied by an object. The standard SI unit…
- … traveled through essentially empty Space inside the atom. Alpha particles are…
- … surrounded by a much larger volume of Space containing negatively charged electrons.…
- … transport energy from one point in Space to another. Common examples of waves…
- … constrained within some region of Space. As we shall see, standing waves play…
- … that pass a specified point in Space in a specified amount of time (in the…
- … that was thought to permeate all Space. Early in the nineteenth century, Thomas…
- … wavelengths are comparable to the Spaces between atoms in a crystalline solid,…
- … through narrow slits closely Spaced about a wavelength apart. The fringe patterns…
- … light passing through two closely Spaced, narrow slits. The spacing of the…
- … pattern in a crystal. The regularly Spaced atomic layers served as slits, as…
- … electron in the three-dimensional Space around the nucleus and is based on…
- … orientation of the orbital in Space, as can be seen in Figure 10.6.
- … also define in what part of the Space an electron is most likely to be located.…
- … present near a certain location in Space. This means that wavefunctions can…
- … but, rather, pairs of closely Spaced lines. This is the so-called fine structure…
- … passing through very closely Spaced slits demonstrates that quantum particles…
- … electron fills the remaining Space in the 2s orbital.
- … are being added to a region of Space that is increasingly distant from the…
- … considerably larger region of Space and the electron–electron repulsions…
- … atomic nuclei, occupying the Space around both atoms. The strong attraction…
- … been discovered in interstellar Space.
- … pairs occupy larger regions of Space than do bonding electrons. The H–N–H…
- … equatorial position has more Space available because of the 120° bond angles.…
- … and an order of the amount of Space occupied by different kinds of electron…
- … and relative arrangements in Space (Figure 17.1). A bond angle is the angle…
- … repulsions determines the amount of Space occupied by different regions of…
- … by VSEPR theory maximize the Space around any region of electron density (bonds…
- … pair takes up a larger region of Space than do the single bonds, causing the…
- … moments in three-dimensional Space, taking into account the molecular structure.
- … permanently in different places in Space) because of the presence of a rigid…
- … permanently in different places in Space) because of the presence of a rigid…
- … arrangement in three-dimensional Space about one tetrahedral, sp3-hybridized…
- … Since lone pairs occupy more Space than bonding pairs, structures that contain…
- … orbital occupy the same region of Space. According to valence bond theory,…
- … electron pairs are close together in Space. However, for larger central atoms,…
- … (quantized) energies. The region of Space in which a valence electron in a…
- … orbitals in solids are so closely Spaced that they are described as bands.…
- … equalization by adding air to body airSpaces on the descent by breathing normally…
- … almost 1313 is reflected back into Space, with the rest absorbed by the atmosphere…
- … by which molecules disperse in Space in response to differences in concentration…
- … dispersal of molecules throughout Space due to their random motion. When this…
- … together, and the amount of empty Space between the molecules is reduced. At…
- … intermolecular forces. (Note: The Space between particles in the gas phase…
- … upper half of Figure 31.1, with Space-filling molecular models shown in the…
- … orientations of the atoms in Space can be different. For example, the compound…
- … atomic sizes not to scale, and a Space-filling model shows the relative sizes…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (d) a Space-filling model. Carbon and hydrogen atoms…
- … orientations of the atoms in Space. (credit bottom left: modification of work…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (c) a Space-filling model. (d) Benzene is a clear…
- … ball-and-stick model, and (c) a Space-filling model. Sulfur atoms are represented…